Lithics-Net Lithics Glossary

LITHICS-NET's Glossary of Lithics Terminology

Please wait for this page to load. Once loaded, this page will automatically position itself at the term you clicked on if your browser supports bookmarks. Once your browser has cached this page, future loading & positioning will be near instantaneous. To go back to the point you were viewing simply click your browser's BACK button. The LITHICS-Net Glossary is an ongoing, never-ending, living document in progress. The Glossary was begun in June 3, 1995, first published on the internet in 1997 and was last updated on February 1, 2009.

For many years archaeologists have shown great concern with projectile typology and a standardization of terms for projectile-point studies has been the focal point of innumerable efforts since the early 1900's. It is rather surprising that now, as we approach the year 2010, there is, as of yet, no real accepted standard terminology and certainly no standardized attribute list for the comparison of projectile point forms. I would highly suggest that any person who wishes to fully study the lithic terms in this glossary first obtain and study the wonderful work of Lewis R. Binford and his paper "A Proposed Attribute List For the Description and Classification of Projectile Points". Mr. Binford's paper was published in the book, Miscellaneous Studies in Typology and Classification, 1963, Museum of Anthropology, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, No. 19.

Other fine sources for terminology are: "A Comparative Study of Some Unfinished Fluted Points and Channel Flakes from the Tennessee Valley", 1961, James W. Cambron and David C. Hulse, Journal of Alabama Archaeology, Vol. VII, No. 2, Alabama Archaeological Society, University of Alabama; "Principles of Stratigraphy", 1960, Amadeus W. Grabau, Dover Publications; the paper "Glossary of Archaeological Terms", T. M. N. Lewis, Tennessee Archaeologist, Vol. 16, No. 1, Tennessee Archaeological Society; Handbook of Alabama Archaeology, Part 1 Point Types, 1964, 1965, 1969, James W. Cambron and David C. Hulse, edited by David L. DeJarnette, Archaeological Research Association of Alabama; Flaked Stone Projectiles, Tools and Ceremonials of the Southeastern States, 1995, Winston H. Baker, Williams Printing.

The beginning student is directed to the book titled, Adventures In Stone Artifacts, 1997, Sandy Livoti & Jon Kiesa, Adventure Publications. This book contains a nice glossary of terms and explains all facets of stone artifact collecting and resources.

Should this LITHICS-Net glossary of terms be used or printed in any manner, the above resources and people should be cited in a bibliography as well as WWW.LITHICSNET.COM. Thank You, Art Gumbus, LITHICS-Net.

Aborigine A native human inhabitant of a country or geographic area. For Example, in North America, the Native North American Indian.

Abrading Stone - A stone, typically sandstone or limestone that was used to smooth or sharpen antler, bone, wood and other stone.

Acute Severe short angles coming to a sharp point.

Accretion A process in which the size of something (mineral deposits on an artifact, patina) gradually increases by the steady addition over time.

A.D. Represents years in the Christian Era. Anno Domini.

Adaptation The process of change to better conform with environmental conditions or other external stimuli.

Adena The major cultural group of the Woodland period. The Adena had cultural influences in Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia. The Adena are regarded in modern times as being accomplished craftsmen.

Adze A tool, typically made from stone, that was presumed to be used like a modern woodworker's chisel to work wood.

Agate A semi-precious chalcedony formed as quartz fossils of a previous geological age. The colors of agate can be clouded, clear or banded.

Alternate When used in reference to a flaked projectile or tool, alternate implies the opposite face of opposing edges was flaked.

Anthropology The scientific and humanistic study of man's present and past biological, linguistic, social, and cultural variations. Its major subfields are archaeology, physical anthropology, cultural anthropology, and anthropological linguistics.

Anvil A rock that was used as a level base for chipping other stone into tools, blades or projectile points. Typically part of a flint knapper's toolkit.

Argillite A metamorphosed shale. It lacks bedding planes and breaks into annular or blocky fragments. Unweathered it is gray-black and weathered it is gray-purple.

Argillaceous Shale An intergrade which is less metamorphosed that argillite.

Archaeology (also sometimes spelled Archeology) The scientific study of the physical evidence of past human societies recovered through the excavation. Archaeology not only attempts to discover and describe past cultures, but also to formulate explanations for the development of cultures.

Archaeologist Anyone with an interest in the aims and methods of archaeology. A professional archaeologist usually holds a degree in anthropology with a specialization in archaeology and is trained to collect archaeological information in a "proper" scientific way.

Archaic Period A time frame in North American pre-history spanning 7,000 years between 10,000 B.P. to 3000 B.P. after Paleo and before Woodland times. The 7,000 years is further defined as Early, Middle and Late Archaic which are also defined elsewhere in this glossary.

Arrowhead or Arrowpoint A weapon point or tip made of stone, bone, metal or other material which in general is less than 1 inches in length (25 mm) and weighs under 15 grams and is attributed no earlier than the Woodland phase of North American Aborigine prehistory. Larger points are regarded as dart points, spear points or knife blades and are associated with spear and dart atlatl or hand thrown delivery systems or hafted cutting.

Artifact An old, authentic object used, crafted or manufactured by the application of human workmanship or activity, especially one of prehistoric origin that may have archaeological significance especially if found in an undisturbed context. Common examples include projectile points, tools, utensils, art, food remains, and other products of human activity.

Assemblage A group of artifacts which represent a culture or archeological unit. A group of artifacts related to each other based upon some recovery from a common archaeological context. Assemblage examples are artifacts from a site or feature. Examples: Orient assemblage, Adena assemblage, Perkiomen assemblage.

Asymmetrical When used in reference to projectiles or tools, asymmetrical refers to opposing side of an object which have dissimilar contours, shape or form.

Atlatl The Aztec word for a spear throwing stick device. This projectile propulsion device preceded the bow and arrow. In general, a wooden or bone stick or board with a hand grip at one end and a spur or hook at the other end. The atlatl is used as an extension of the arm in throwing a spear or dart. The spear shaft is socketed and fits into the spur or hook of the Atlatl. Essentially the Atlatl lengthens the length of the spear thrower's arm and with loaded, spring-like, motion can provide the benefit of greater force and distance over that of the hand thrown spear. It is hypothesized that sometimes a stone weight(s) (a.k.a.: Bannerstone, Birdstone, Boatstone) was attached to the Atlatl to provide better balance or to load the device with a spring or bending effect or to diminish the "whoosh" noise created during the throwing process.

Atlatl Weight A drilled or grooved stone or shell that was used to weight the atlatl. Often called a Bannerstone. See Atlatl.

Auricle The corners of a stem of stemmed types or the corners of the base of triangular types which are ear-like.

Auriculate A major projectile form which has rounded or pointed ears that project from the concave base or stem of points or blades.

Authentic True or genuine. Artifacts made in prehistoric times.

Axe A large chopping tool that may have a grove for hafting to a handle.

Bannerstone A stone presumed to be an Atlatl weight with a drilled centered hole or a grove. The bannerstone could be a ceremonial object and remains a problematical artifact. Certain bannerstones are so large and elaborate that their design and size totally precludes them from being used effectively as an atlatl weight and thus are considered ceremonial objects.

Barbs A sharp protrusion of the blade of stemmed or notched types at the proximal corners.

There are 6 major types of barbs, Expanded which means flaring outward and upwards towards the distal end, Horizontal which means flaring outward at 90 degrees to the stem, Inversely Tapered which means pointing downward and getting thinner, Rounded which means the outline is semi-circular, Struck which means knocked off, and Tapered which means minimized in an angle towards the tip.
Basal Edge The proximal edge of a triangular or lanceolate projectile or stem of a stemmed type. There are eight major types of Basal Edges; Convex, Straight, Concave, Auriculate, Lobbed, Bifurcated, Fractured and Snapped.

Basal Thinning Produced to remove small, longitudinal flakes from the basal edge of a projectile point in order that the tool or point could be more easily hafted or held.

Base The bottom of the stem. The base is the proximal or end portion of a knife, tool or projectile point. The base is usually designed for hafting or gripping, but not designed or intended for cutting, scraping or penetrating. Oftentimes, base edges were ground so that sharp edges would not abrade the hafting materials and cause hafting failure with use. The bottom part of a point or knife. The base shape can be round, convex, concave or straight.

B.C. A year some time Before the birth of Christ. The Pre Christian Era.

Beveled refers to a blade edge, a stem side edge or a stem base which was steeply flaked across one or more faces which produces a noticeable slope.

Bevel, Biface A bevel which was formed by removing flakes from both faces of an edge.

Bevel, Steep A bevel of a blade edge or stem edge which was flaked at a steep (> 40 degree) angle to the plane of the face.

Bevel, Uniface A bevel which was formed by removing seep flakes from just one face of an edge. The opposing face may have a few flat flake scars of the primary flaking of scattered retouch flake scars.

Biconvex A blade shape having two worked faces.

Biface In reference to projectiles or tools, biface describes those examples which have been worked and exhibit flake scars along both faces or sides.

Bifurcated Base A type of basal stem of a projectile or tool which has a central notch splitting the stem into the form of two ears.

Billet A bone or antler tool used for flaking.

Bipoint The bipoint probably is the oldest point form in the Eastern United States. It is a lanceolate form with point on both ends of the specimen. The Guilford and Lerma point types are a classic examples of a bipoint.

Birdstone Typically a stone artifact, thought to be an Atlatl weight which was shaped like a bird. Quite possibly some other type of ceremonial object. Some birdstones have bulging or "Pop" eyes. Usually made from a banded slate.

Blade Overall this term is used to describe a knife form. However, in lithic projectile terms, the blade is the distal (above the hafting or gripping area) portion of a projectile, knife, ax or other similar tool. Blade is also used to refer to large bifaced flaked artifacts.

Blank See Preform.

Blowout A patch of land in the Great Plains states of North America where dry soil is blown away by wind leaving heavier rock and possibly artifacts on the surface.

Blunt A point that abruptly terminates part way up the blade with no true distal point for piercing. Typically the point is chipped in a mild excurvate or straight edge. Some feel that the point may have been used in hunting as a "stunning" weapon. However, most blunts show signs as being a conserved, former projectile, reworked into a hand held or hafted scraper.

Boatstone A stone artifact shaped like a watercraft which is thought to be a type of Atlatl weight or a ceremonial ornament of some type.

Bulbous A term used to define a stem form that has oval sides and a flat to slightly rounded basal edge.

Bulb of Percussion A bulb resulting from a conchoidal fracture of stone.

Bulbar Depression A depression left from the bulb of percussion when a blade or flake is struck from a core.

Burin A tool flaked into a chisel point for inscribing or grooving bone, wood, leather, stone or antler.

B.P. Before Present. Where present is define as the year 1950 A.D. Therefore, 1949 B.P. would be the year 1 A.D. and 1951 B.P. would be the year 1 B.C.

Cache A group of artifacts deposited in the same safe place, usually of the same type or lithic origin. The point cache is common in North America. The Cache occurs for all of prehistory. While the archaeological literature contains numerous explainations, there is no way to explain any particular cache. Generally, the assumption is that caches were created to store tools for; some future use, ceremonial events, tribute, child-to-adult ceremony, and other explainations.

Caddo A shortened form of the tribal name Cadohadacho, referring to three main Native American tribal groups spread along wide fertile prairies bordering the great bend in the Red River. The three cultures are- the Cadohadacho and the Natchitoches along the Red River, and the Hasinai along the banks of the upper Neches and Angelina Rivers in East Texas. Each tribe within these three regional groupings had an individual identity and was independently governed, but all had a common language, followed the same social and religious customs, and shared traditions. Their direct descendants are listed on the tribal roll of the Caddo Indian Tribe of Oklahoma in the twentieth century. (From Caddo Indians: Where We Come From (1995pg4) by Cecile Elkins Carter, Cultural Liaison for the Caddo Tribes of Oklahoma.)

Caddoan A family of North American Indian languages spoken in the upper Missouri Valley in North Dakota, in the Platto Valley in Nebraska, in southwestern Arkansas, and in neighboring parts of Oklahoma, Texas and Louisiana.

Callche A white or tan calcium deposit that can form on artifacts which are found in Texas and adjoining states.

Celt A thin, ungroved axe with a sharp edge used for cutting or chopping. Probably hafted into a wooden handle.

Ceramic Of or pertaining to pottery.

Chalcedony A flint like stone with a waxy appearance, the sources of which are usually nodular.

Channel Flake A long longitudinal percussion flake removed in the fluting process.

Chert A very fine grained rock formed in ancient ocean sediments. It often has a semi-glossy finish and is usually white, pinkish, brown, gray, or blue-gray in color. It can be shaped into arrowheads and projectile by chipping. It has often been called flint, but true flint is found in chalk deposits and is a distinctive blackish color. In North America, high grade glossy cherts are called "Flint", while low grade, dull chert is called "chert".

Chronology The arrangement of events, or the materials which represent them, in the order of their occurrence in time.

Classic Example A subjective term used to refer to a specific point specimen which represents the truest form of a particular point type or blade.

Clipped Wing A barbed shoulder that has been fractured off or clipped.

Cluster A group of stylistically and chronologically similar artifacts for which adequate excavation data does not exist to allow for the classification as a phase.

Collateral A term which refers to a flaking style where parallel flakes are removed from each side of the face of a blade and meet in the center of the blade, forming a median ridge.

Complex A relatively broad archeological unit of a local sequence over a long period of time; it implies a stage of cultural development embracing several phases which may or may not be sufficiently delineated to be recognized as phases. Examples: Delaware Valley Archaic Complex.

Component A term which refers to the manifestation of a single archeological unit as a site.

Concave A term to describe an outline which curves inward. Synonymous with incurvate and the opposite of convex and excurvate. Suggested that this term only be used to describe basal edges.

Conchoidal Fracture A breakage of rock in concentric circles or in a clam shell-like scar pattern. Referring to the characteristic fractures resulting from pressure and percussion flaking of flint and chert.

Conglomerate A rock composed of rounded pebbles and sand which are cemented together into a solid rock.

Conoidal Theory of Flint Fracture The theory that ideally a cone will be punched out of a piece of flint when it is struck with sufficient force.

Conservation Archaeology A subfield of archaeology which focuses on the preservation of archaeological resources. This position encourages the stabilization and preservation of archaeological sites as opposed to their immediate excavation.

Context The relation of an artifact or cultural remains to the surrounding artifacts or remains and to the soil level in which they were found. The surrounding conditions of an archaeological find.

Contracting A term that refers to the width of a stem or point that is diminishing in outline.

Convex A term to describe an outline which curves outward. Synonymous with excurvate and the opposite of concave. Suggested that this term only be used to describe basal edges.

Core A "Parent" stone such as flint or chert from which flakes or blades have been struck and removed (by percussion) for use in the manufacture of tools or projectiles.

Corner Notch A major projectile form which is described as a point that has had notches for hafting struck into the corners of the base. Also, a flaking technique applied to accommodate hafting which involved the flaking of notches into the basal corners of a preform base.

Cortex the cortex is the outer layer of rock or rind formed on the exterior of raw materials by chemical and mechanical weathering processes. It is often recorded on the dorsal surface of flakes using a three class system: primary(100%cortex),secondary(100%>x>0%), and tertiary (0%). The amount of cortex present on artifacts in an archaeological assemblage may indicate the extent of lithic reduction that has occurred. The cortex is sometimes found on the base of the stem of certain artifacts.

Cotype An example of the original series when there is no holotype, the describer having used a number of examples of equal value.

Crescent A mysterious 1/4 moon shaped artifact found in the Great Basin area of the United States that may have been a blade form, or a scraper or a transverse hafted projectile point. It is found in one of three types: A crescent moon; a crescent half moon; a crescent butterfly shape.

Cross Section In reference to a blade, the shape of the blade form if the blade were cut across the blade and perpendicular to the length of the blade.

Culture Archaeologically, a human population that shared a similar economic life style, activities and beliefs which can be recognized through the identification of residual remains and artifacts which were left behind by the group.

Cultural Complex A group of traits whose associations in time and space indicate that they were the products of the activities of a specific human group.

Cultural Resource Management A branch of archaeology that is concerned with developing policies and action in regard to the preservation and use of cultural resources.

Dart A projectile point hafted to a shaft that utilized a throwing stick or atlatl or blowgun.

Dart Point A flaked projectile point designed for use as a tip for a throwing stick dart. Typically Dart Points are larger than 24mm in length and weigh more than 15 grams.

Dendrochronology The scientific study of the annular growth of trees. Trees produce rings of various thickness annually in response to rainfall. Tree-rings therefore, can be used to reconstruct fluctuations in rainfall in the past, reflecting past climatic conditions.

Deposit Any accumulation laid down by human occupational activities.

Distal End or Tip That portion of a projectile, knife or other tool or other hafted artifact which was designed for penetration, cutting or scraping. The end of the artifact which is farthest from the point of attachment, hafting or holding.

Drill An oblong tool made of flaked stone used in drilling holes in wood, leather or hides. Oftentimes, drills were made from well used projectile points which were near end of life and thus many drills maintain the stem and hafting area of the original point type.

Drift A tool or implement, usually made of antler, which is used in the indirect percussion flaking process.

Early Archaic A cultural period of the North American Aborigine Indians dating from 10,000 to 7,000 B.P.

Ears Pointed or rounded projections from the base or hafting area of certain projectile points.

Ecology The study of interrelationships of organisms and their environment.

Effigy An object bearing the likeness of an animal or human.

Elliptical A description of a projectile's cross section. A cross section which looks like an ellipse, having two convex faces which taper near the blade edges.

Engraving The scratched lines into the surface of an object (ie. pottery, slate, shell, metal)

Excurvate A shape that bulges out in a graceful smooth convex curve. A term used to describe a convex blade edge or basal edge or stem.

Expanded or "E" Notched A notch type which is composed of two notches in close proximity that leave a nipple as a remnant. Also known as a Double Notch.

Expanding Generally, referring to the width of a stem or point that is getting larger or wider.

Expention Point or tool expention is the process of determining when a point or tool no longer served its user. When this stage in the life of an artifact occurs, the user discards the point or tool and starts the prossess of manufacturing its replacement.

Face The broader area of a tool or projectile between the edges. This area could include the blade and hafting area.

Face, Obverse On a fluted projectile, it is the face from which the initial or primary flute was removed.

Face, Reverse On a fluted projectile, it is the face from which the secondary flute was removed.

Features Evidence of human activities at a site which are visible as disturbances in the soil. Some examples of such disturbances are: digging pits for storage, setting posts for houses in the form of post molds, or by constructing a hearth for cooking. These disturbances are often distinguished by soil discolorations or non-natural formations of stone, shell, bone, soil, coals, wood, etc.

Felsite A lithic material which is a cryptocrystalline igneous rock made up of feldspar and quartz.

Flake A thin flat asymmetrical piece of flint or other stone which was intentionally removed from a tool or projectile core during the process of manufacture or sharpening/resharpening.

Flake Scar A scare that remains on a flaked artifact resulting from the removal of a flake during the manufacture of the artifact.

Flaking The removal of flakes during the manufacture of a flaked artifact. Baton Flaking is the term used to describe the removal of flakes from stone by striking blows with a baton-like tool. A method of direct percussion flaking.

Flaking Alternate Biface Bevel The opposite face of each edge was steeply flaked and each face opposing the beveled edge was flatly flaked.

Flaking, Baseward The removal of flakes from the distal tip at a downward angle towards the basal edge.

Flaking, Benton This flaking technique involved the removal of large and small percussion flakes which resulted in numerous step fractures. Pressure flaking was often used to form serrations. Oblique-transverse flaking was used to shape the blade of a few examples.

Flaking, Biface Bevel This flaking technique involved the removal of elongate, steep, pressure or percussion flakes just opposite each other from an edge to form a biface bevel and often biface serrations.

Flaking, Biface Serration This flaking technique involved the removal of elongate, not so steep, pressure or percussion flakes just opposite each other from an edge to form biface serrations.

Flaking, Chevron A V-shaped flaking pattern which extended beyond the distal tip along much or all of one or both faces of a blade.

Flaking, Early Archaic Percussion-Pressure A type of flaking in which the Preform was shaped by percussion flaking. The blade edges were ground to prepare a surface for the removal of elongate pressure flakes. The pressure flaking may have taken the form of alternate uniface bevel flaking, biface serration flaking, alternate biface bevel flaking or irregular pressure flaking.

Flaking, Flat The removal of thin flakes by striking the artifact at a small angle to the plane of the face.

Flaking, Flint Creek A characteristic flaking style of the Flint Creek culture which was accomplished by removing regular, deep, elongate, opposing pressure flakes from the blade edges. The application of this flaking style usually resulted in the formation of very fine biface serrations.

Flaking, Horizontal Transverse A unique flaking style where horizontal parallel flakes are removed that extend from one edge of the blade, across to the other edge.

Flaking, Oblique Transverse A unique flaking style in which the removal of flakes from a blade face results in long diagonal parallel flake scars which extend from one side of the blade across the blade face to the other side of the blade.

Flaking, Opposing Flakes were struck just opposite each other from opposing faces.

Flaking, Opposing Pressure In finishing blade edges, pressure flakes were removed from each face opposite of each other.

Flaking, Parallel (A.K.A. Collateral Flaking) A secondary flaking technique that is often found on the earliest projectile points and stone tools, usually performed on the blade faces, in which the removal of flakes was performed in such a manner to remove flakes of similar size, depth, length and direction to result in flake scars which are parallel. Typically the mark of a well accomplished flint knapper. Such flake scars are found only on few specimens and can be quite aesthetically beautiful to behold.

Flaking, Percussion A flaking technique which involved the striking of a preform with a billet, a hammerstone or other flaking tool. This flaking technique usually left a hinge or step fracture.

Flaking, Pressure A flaking technique which involved the removal of flakes by pressure against the edge of a preform with a pointed implement or flaking tool such as bone or antler.

Flaking, Primary Initial flaking, usually broad, shallow, random percussion, used to roughly shape a preform into a desired outline for a tool or projectile.

Flaking, Random The removal of flakes with no regard to the resulting aesthetic alignment of flake scars.

Flaking, Regular The removal of closely aligned flakes of similar lengths and widths which result in an aesthetically pleasing flake scar design.

Flaking, Secondary Following the primary flaking, this flaking technique was applied to remove medium-sized pressure or percussion flakes in shaping the blade and basal edges, forming notches or producing serrations.

Flaking Tool A tool, such as an antler billet, or antler drift, which was used in removing flakes during the manufacture of a flaked stone projectile, tool, blade or artifact.

Flint A quartz with a high silica content that produces a conchoidal fracture when chipped. It is usually found in association with chalk, limestone, and other rock deposits which contain lime. It commonly occurs in small ovoid nodules as well as in larger veins. Impure flint is known as chert, which varies widely as to texture, color, grain, and knapping characteristics. Pure flint is so hard and even-grained that is use by early man was a vital necessity in producing spear point, dart point, knives and other utilitarian tools. Late stone-age man learned that when struck with a high iron content rock, the flint gave off sparks. Thus, flint became Iron-Age man's method of producing fire. Flint comes in many colors from white to black including gray, tan, brown, olive, blue, and other variants and mottled combinations.

Flint Knappers Humans that flake stone such as flint into projectiles and tools or replicas thereof.

Flotation An archaeological recovery method of obtaining seeds and other organic materials from soil by using liquids.

Flute A long narrow grove, resulting from the removal of an elongated channel flake, which extends from the basal edge of a projectile for some distance along the face. Used to thin the hafting area.

Flutes, Lateral The initial, usually short flutes that were removed from either side of the midportion of the basal edge to form a striking platform for the removal of the median flute.

Fluted A point or blade that has one or more flutes.

Flute, Median On multifluted faces, it is the main, the central most and usually the longest flute.

Flute, Primary The first median flute to be removed in the fluting process.

Flute, Secondary The second median flute to be removed in the fluting process. This flute was removed from the face opposite the primary flute.

Fluting, Multiple A technique of fluting that involved the removal of two short lateral flutes in preparation for the removal of a longer flute.

Fluting, Single Projectiles or tools which have one flute per face.

Focus Synonymous with Phase.

Fracture, Hinge A recurvate upstep where the distal end of a blade or flake abruptly broke from the parent material. Such a flake scar is indicative of a cruder form of percussion flaking.

Fracture, Impact A breakage of the distal tip of a projectile which is characterized by a missing portion of the tip and an elongate fracture scar extending along one face of the blade. Usually occurring during impact when a point was thrown or shot.

Fracture, Step A vertical upstep where the distal end of a blade or flake broke from the parent material. Such a flake scar is indicative of a well executed form of percussion flaking.

Gorget A ornament made of stone, slate, or shell which was typically ground, drilled with one or more holes and polished. These artifacts were presumably worn over the chest and were either suspended on a cord or attached directly to clothing. Another possible use of the gorget was as an atlatl weight.

Graver A small tool with a sharp tip that was used to engrave bone, stone, wood or other materials.

Grinding A method of stone working employed in the smoothing of an edge or surface by rubbing it with a hammerstone or other abrader prior to use. Performed on projectiles or blades so that hafting materials (lashings) would not be cut by sharp edges of the base. Also commonly referred to as Basal Grinding when the base and sides of the stem have been ground. There are varying degrees of grinding, typically referred to as light, moderate or heavy.

Ground An edge or surface that was smoothed by abrasion.

Haft To attach a shaft or handle to a projectile or knife blade. To provide with a handle.

Hafting Area The basal portion or proximal end of a projectile or knife blade which was designed for attaching or lashing or adhering to a shaft or handle for use. The characteristics of this portion of a projectile/blade artifact are critical for accurate identification. Such attributes as notching, fluting, thinning, grinding or stemming are key diagnostic elements for point typology. In most cases, a specimen can be classified if only this portion of the example is found intact, while the absence of this part will make a specific analysis and typology effort difficult or impossible.

Hammerstone A stone, usually a rounded hard river pebble that shows battering scars resulting from repeated use as a hammer or platform in the flaking process.

Hard-Hammer Percussion A crude flintknapping technique used to break down large rocks by striking one against the other.

Heat Treating The use of fire to heat and thermally alter a stone preform in an attempt to improve its working characteristics and flaking qualities prior to knapping and flaking. Typical result of heat treating is a color change of the stone as well as the molecular structure. Heat treating occurs at temperatures that approximate or exceed 350 degrees Centigrade. When heated slowly over a long period of time, the luster, color and cleavage of some chert and fling is improved. Heat treating will often create a frosted or mineralized ring on the material. Heat treating was often effected by prehistoric Indians by preparing a sand-lined firepit and slowly heating the lithic materials for a day or more prior to knapping.

Hinge Fracture A scar left behind when the terminal end of a blade or flake, being struck from the parent material, makes a sharp dip into the material causing a deep abrupt fracture.

Historic A cultural period of the North American Aborigine Indians dating from 450 to 170 B.P.

Holotype Among the primary types, a holotype is the original specimen selected as the type, and from which the original description for the type or the original illustration (photograph) was made.

Homotype A homotype is a specimen not used in the literature but identified by a specialist, after analysis and comparison with the attributes of a holotype.

Horizon A division of cultural history which is characterized by a group of traits with a wide geographical distribution and a brief duration. Examples: shell-tempered pottery, net-marked pottery.

Horizon Style A regional art style or motif of relatively brief duration. Examples: face effigies, Chance Motif.

Impact Fracture see Fracture, Impact

In Situ In Place

Inclusion A foreign solid which is enclosed in the mass of an otherwise homogeneous mineral or material.

Indirect Percussion Flaking a stone object by striking a drift which has been placed against the object.

Industry A group of artifacts made of the same material. Examples: bone industry, stone industry, shell industry.

Incurvate A term to describe the outline or shape that is indented or convex. A form of Basal edge or Stem Base outline.

Interaction Sphere This term refers to prehistoric groups who shared social interaction and exchanged materials or finished goods, through a network made up of medium to long distance trade contacts.

Jasper Chert A reddish, browinish to yellowish or sometimes greenish variety of chalcedone or chert lithic material used in point production. One of the better known jaspers is the Very Cruz Jasper, which is a mustard yellow to red stone from Pennsylvania.

Knife A tool which was flaked to form one or more elongate cutting edges.

Knobbed A stem form having a rounded lump or protruding appearance.

Lanceolate Shaped like the head of a lance or leaves; narrow and tapered toward the the distal end and sometimes towards both ends. A term used to describe a major projectile point form that has no notches or shoulders or definable stem. Bases can be round, straight, concave, convex. A sub-type form of Lanceolate could be Lanceolate-Triangular.

Late Archaic A cultural period of the North American Aborigine Indians dating from 4,000 to 3,000 B.P.

Late Paleo A cultural period of the North American Aborigine Indians dating from 15,000 to 10,000 B.P.

Late Woodland A cultural period of the North American Aborigine Indians dating from 1,300 to 400 B.P. Also known as Mississippian.

Laurentian Tradition Point Types The Laurentian Tradition gave birth to the following point types: Vosburg, Brewerton Side-notched, Brewerton Corner-notched, Brewerton Eared Triangular, Brewerton Eared-Notched, Otter Creek.

Length The overal size from tip to base of a projectile point. The length as a measurement is irrelevant archaeologically unless correlated to usage and functionality. Different point lengths have different functional attributes that are applied to usage. For example, a point that is greater than 100 mm in length works well as a butchering knife, whereas, a point less than 35 mm works better as a trimming tool or a dart point. Lenght is typically measured in milimeters. Small = < 25 mm Medium = 26 - 50 mm Large = > 51 mm Ceremonial - > 125 mm

Length-width Ratio The ratio of greatest length over the greatest width.

Lenticular A term used to describe a cross section of a blade that is excurvate on both faces thus looking like a convex lens or an ellipse. Sometimes also referred to as elliptical.

Lithic Relating to stone.

Lithics Stone tools or projectiles.

Lobate A type of stem that describes points and knives with curved or rounded ears.

Lobbed A term used to describe the base portion of a point or blade that is eared. The ears are rounded and are formed by the meeting of two circles creating a lobbed effect. An object with a oval shaped base or stem.

Mano A stone with a flat side that was primarily used to grind edible substances, typically corn, grains and nut meats.

Maul A stone pounding tool that was pecked, ground, groved and hafted.

Median Ridge A ridge that usually runs from the tip of a blade to the hafting area which was formed by collateral flaking techniques in the manufacture of the artifact. The median ridge can be the thickest part of the blade.

Microlith A small, long, and narrow stone tool.

Midden The band or layer of soil which contains the byproducts of human activity as the result of the accumulation of these materials on their living surface. For prehistoric sites, a layer of soil that was stained to a dark color by the decomposition of organic refuse which also contained food bones, fragments of stone tools, charcoal, pieces of pottery, or other discarded materials. For historic sites, a similar layer of soil but with appropriate historic material remains often in a much thinner deposit. These deposits can be seen as strata and oftentimes when more than one strata of midden is present in a site, and clearly define, each strata can be called a Lens.

Middle Archaic A cultural period of the North American Aborigine Indians dating from 7,000 to 4,000 B.P.

Midline An imaginary line extending along the center of a projectile from the distal tip to the midpoint of the basal edge.

Midpoint An imaginary point a the intersection of the Midline and the transverse line.

Mississippian A cultural period of the southeastern North American Aborigine Indians dating from 1,300 to 400 B.P. This culture shows strong Mexican influences and is assocated with many groups ancestral to the historic Muskhogean speaking tribes of the Southeast. Note that this cultural period does not relate to Northeastern Central or Western North American Aborigine Indians.

Mocronate Tip A type of distal end or tip treatment in which a small sharp nipple has been left on the very tip of the blade.
Morphology The overall projectile form outline of the artifact.
Typically, falling into one of the following 8 major classifications; Lanceolate, Auriculate, Basal Notched, Stemmed, Corner Notched, Side Notched, Stemmed-Bifurcated
Mottled Any material that contains spots of different colors or shades.

Neck That part of the projectile or blade that is narrowest and is in between the notches. The topmost part of the hafting area of a notched artifact.

Nodule A large, usually roughly spherical piece of stone such as flint which was selected as a material from which to remove flakes or blades for the manufacture of stone tools and projectile points.

Notch A flaked U or V shaped indentation on the stem or bottom of the stem. Notching factilitated hafting or the attachment of the point or blade to a dart shaft, knife handle or arrow shaft.

Notch Width The measurement of the space between the notches across the narrowest point of the stem or base.

Notch, Basal A flaking technique applied to accommodate hafting which involved the flaking of notches into the basal edge of a preform.

Notched, Corner A flaking technique applied to accommodate hafting which involved the flaking of notches into the corners of a preform.

Notched, Low Side A flaking technique applied to accommodate hafting which involved the flaking of notches into the side of a preform near its base.

Notched, Side A major projectile form where notches to accommodate hafting were struck into the sides of a preform near the base.

Notches, Expanded Notches which are broader near the stem than between the auricle and barb tips. These notches are bigger at their end than at the blade edge.

Obsidian A volcanic glass that may be clear, black, brown or green in color, which is one of the finest raw materials for the chipping of stone tools.

Obtuse A term used to describe a rounded tip or blunt tipped artifact.

Outline A key and obvious diagnostic feature is the outline or silhouette of the implement. The outline is the two dimensional image perceived when viewing the outer perimeter of an artifact with a blade face towards the viewer. Some projectile point types have distinctive outlines and can be accurately identified by this singular feature.

Paleo A cultural period of the North American Aborigine Indians defined as 40,000 to 12,000 B.P.

Paleolithic A stage of the history of mankind which is characterized by the use and manufacture of stone tools (lithics).

Patina A surface discoloration or adhesive outer crust of an artifact due to chemical changes resulting from weathering. Patina does not necessarily imply great age.

Patination A loss of minerals from the surface of an artifact which resulted in a color change usually to a lighter side. Patination is the result of the aging process of stone tools. It varies by material and by geographical location. It can be an indicator of age, especially for rhyolite and shale/slate artifacts. However, tools made from quartz and quartzite seldom reflect heavy patintinations even on Clovis points. The acidic environment in which the artifact is found may have a marked effect on the extent of patination. Patination may vary according to the buried position of the artifact.

Pecking Battering a stone with a hammerstone to form an intended shape by removal of very small chips.

Period The largest archeological unit, it occupies a large geographic area over a long period of time and has an internal chronology composed of phases and complexes. Examples: Archaic, Woodland

Petroglyphs Carvings, scratchings or peckings in rock which express artistic or religious meaning.

Phase A subdivision of a culture which can be defined as a reoccurring complex of archaeological traits that can be distinguished from any other similar complex. A phase usually involved a more limited territory and a briefer time span than a culture. Synonymous to a focus. Examples: Chance Phase, Perkiomen Phase, Bushkill Phase.

Pictographs Paintings on rock which express artistic or religious meaning.

Plano Convex A description of a cross-section of a blade that is semi-circular. One face is flat while the other face is excurvate or rounded. Also sometimes refereed to as a uniface cross-section.

Pleistocene Epoch A period of time dated from 1.6 million to 11,500 years ago. It was characterized by an unstable climate with arctic conditions in the form of glaciers which spread down from the poles at least four times.

Plummet A problematic polished stone artifact that has many conjectured intended uses. In all likelihood a cerimonial object.

Preform An early stage in the manufacture of a flaked stone artifact usually with a roughly oval, elliptical or triangular outline. Preforms which are roughly shaped, were intended to be finished at a later date into a point or blade. In general, the preform was a finished "blank" that lacked only the knapping of the hafting area details for completion of the final implement.

Prehistoric Sites Locations where people who were alive before modern written records existed once lived, hunted, camped, or were buried. Painted or carved rock outcrops are considered sites as well.

Previous Blade or Flake Scar A blade or flake scar seen on the face of a blade or flake resulting form the initial removal of a blade or a flake from a core or nodule.

Projectile Point A manufactured, sharp, penetrating distal tip which is usually flaked stone that was used in conjunction with a spear, dart or arrow. Also can be made from ground and polished stone, antler, bone, shell or metal.

Provenience Pertaining to the origin or source of an artifact, typically the geographic location from which the artifact was found. The three-dimensional location of an artifact or feature within an archaeological site, measured by two horizontal dimensions, and a vertical elevation.

Proximal Corners The parts of a blade nearest the stem which define the outermost ends of the blade edge if the stem were ignored or removed. Also referred to as the barb.

Proximal Portion The part of a blade nearest the stem of hafting area or in the area of a tool nearest the basal edge.

Quantum Classification Method A technique used in the definition of a projectile point by placing the specimen into one of five design styles: lanceolate, notched, stemmed, bifurcate or triangle forms. These forms or styles refer to the base or shape of the hafting area.

Quarry Blank See Preform.

Quartz A material frequently used in projectile points and other artifacts. When quartz is clear and colorless it is called rock crystal; milky wuartz is milky white; smoky quartz is clouded a brown color; rose quartz is a pale red color; sugar quartz is the color of brown sugar.

Quartz, Sugar Also known as Quartzite, a granular low grade form of light brownish quartz used in the production of some point types, especially in areas where flint or cherts were not available.

Quartzite A granular form of quartz stone which was formed in water deposited sediments and consists of sand grains which have been cemented together. It can be chipped, but is difficult to work.

Radiocarbon Dating A process that provides absolute dates by counting the radioactive decay of carbon in the remains of once living plants and animals (i.e., charcoal, wood, bone, shell).

Recurvate A shape that from the bottom starts wide then thins out becomes wide and then again thins out to the distal end. A fish shaped profile. A basal edge that has two smooth indents with a central excurvate bulge.

Rejects Preforms that because of some unsuitable flaking qualities of the stone or breakage were discarded without being completed.

Rescue Archaeology A term applied to the emergency salvage of sites in immediate danger of destruction by major land modification projects such as reservoir construction.

Retouching The fine flaking of an edge to improve and finalize the form by removal of the small flakes (usually by pressure) to produce sharpness.

Reworking Flaking applied to a broken or dulled tool so as to reclaim it for additional use. Sometimes called Lateral Rejuvenation, reworking was the characteristic means by which an implement was resharpened. Alternate and bifacial beveling, serration, and other diagnostic features of blade renewal are very important to age determination as well as for the purpose of assembling attribute clusters for typological analysis. Typically reworked blades or points have a different outline than their former pristine outline. Reworking of lithic objects was employed by early man due to the general lack of high quality lithic materials.

Rhyolite Rhyolite is an igneous, volcanic (extrusive) rock, of felsic (silicon-rich) composition. It may have any texture from aphanitic to porphyritic. The mineral assemblage is usually quartz, alkali feldspar and plagioclase (in a ratio > 1:2. Biotite and hornblende are common accessory minerals. Rhyolite can be considered as the extrusive equivalent to the plutonic granite rock, and consequently, outcroppings of it often bear a resemblance to granite. Due to their high content of silica and low iron and magnesium contents, rhyolite melts are highly polymerized and form highly viscous lavas. Rhyolites that cool too quickly to grow crystals form a natural glass or vitrophyre, also called obsidian. Slower cooling forms microscopic crystals in the lava and results in textures such as flow foliations, spherulitic, nodular, and lithophysal structures.

Rind The deeply patinated or weathered surface of a nodule or other piece of stone, flint, chert or other material.

Rounded A term used to describe a basal edge which has rounded stem outline. Also a term to describe a point which is not sharp or barb types.

Sandstone A sedimentary rock composed of mostly cemented quarts grains.

Scraper A stone tool designed for used in scraping hides, bones and other similar materials in the preparation of food, clothing and shelter. A small stone blade with uniface flaking.

Serrations Consecutive small teeth or barbs on the edge of a blade formed by removing pressure flakes. Biface serrations have flakes removed from both sides of the blade edge while uniface serrations have flakes removed from only one face of an edge.

Shape The three dimensional image perceived when one considers the entire artifact.

Sherds The individual pieces of broken pottery vessels.

Shoulder The area of an artifact that divides the blade from the stem or hafting area. The bottom corners of a blade. The stem starts below the shoulders. Shoulders are not always present on all artifacts.

Silicified Shale A fine-grained sedimentary rock made from compacted and lithified silica-rich clay. The clay consists of hydrous silicate minerals consisting mainly of silica, aluminum, and water. It is formed in quiet water environments, such as lake bottoms, where the finest particles settle to the bottom. Shales may also contain fossils of the animals or plants from these environments. One notable property of shale is its fissility, the property of splitting easily along bedding planes into thin layers. Heat-treating is generally not recommended because of the entrapped water content.

Siltstone A roch that is somewhat similar to sandstone, but with particle size ranging between that of sandstone and shale.

Site A location where human activities once took place and left some form of material evidence. A location which has yielded artifacts and either is, has, or will undergo excavation or is being conserved for the future. Known sites should not be disturbed by amateurs or surface hunted. Sites can be registered and can have a site number or code associated with them.

Smoothing An edge that has been worn smooth and rounded from use in scraping or drilling.

Snapped Base A term used to describe points that have a part of the base intentionally removed or fractured off as part of the intentional design by the original knapper.

Spalls The unused flakes left from flint knapping.

Spear Point An large projectile that was probably designed to be hafted onto a long, hand held shaft.

Stage A complex developmental unit encompassing a broad span of time, wide spread of cultural unity, and cultural sequences. A technological and economic level of cultural attainment; it implies chronology in only very broad terms. Examples: hunting and gathering stage, horticultural stage.

State Archaeologist An appointed official who is responsible for overseeing all potential impacts to archaeological resources and for reviewing and administering all archaeological work in order to insure compliance with state and federal regulations.

Steatite A grayish-green or brownish type of soapstone quarried for the purpose of manufacturing bowls, pipes and ornaments. The soapstone is carveable and shapeable which lends itself to use especially before the invention of pottery.

Stem The extension of the base of a projectile point or knife which was designed for hafting or gripping. Stems can occur in various shapes. The proximal end of a point. The stem can be one of the following shapes and is a key in typology: constricted, expanded, straight-sided or concave-sided.

Stemmed Point A projectile or blade that has a stem which was designed for hafting or holding.

Stone Boiling A type of cooking that is done by heating stones in an open fire and then placing themin the liquid or substance to be cooked. This is often done in baskets or containers that cannot be placed directly in or over a fire.

Stratigraphy The arrangement of strata with respect to the position in which they were laid down by human occupation or from natural causes.

Striking Platform A prepared basal edge of a projectile point. This edge is beveled to a degree of pitch that will allow a drift to be set at the proper angle to strike off a channel flake.

Tang A projection that extends from the base or stem of a point, also known as ears. The outermost part of the shoulder. Shape of the tang is a protrusion that is upward (towards the tip), expanded or drooping. The tang is often times the widest area of the projectile point or blade.

Temper The use of an additive (ie. ground shell) to both strengthen and reduce shrinking of ceramics during firing.

Test Excavation Subsurface excavations in areas which are either defined as sites based on surface artifacts or thought to contain buried deposits based on the landform.

Thickness A measurement take at the thickest point.

Thinning Decreasing the thickness of an artifact, or a portion of an artifact by extensive flaking. Basal Thinning refers to the removal of thickness from the hafting area by means of flake removal.

Tool Kit The set of all weapons and tools that was created and used by a person or group of people.

Tradition The temporal range of a culture or attribute. A socially transmitted technological practice that may be traced through several different cultural assemblages over a wide area. Examples: broadspear tradition, Laurentian tradition, cord decorated pottery tradition.

Trait Any artifact or recognizable characteristic that reflects human activity or behavior.

Transitional A term used to describe an artifact that was utilized and manufactured across two or more cultural periods.

Transitional Paleo A cultural period of North American Aborigine Indians dating from 12,000 to 9,000 B.P. which occured between the Paleo and Archaic periods.

Transverse Line An imaginary line extending across the center of a projectile, halfway between the distal tip and the basal edge.

Triangular A projectile, knife, preform or blade which has three sides or roughly has the shape of a triangle.

Tripolitic Weathering A severe form of patination where flint or chert seem to be transformed over a long period of time into a chalky, porous, crumbly or granular limestone. It is believed that weathering effects, especially acidic water can cause this type of transformation.

Truncated A discriptive term meaning short or shortened, lacking in length, terminated abruptly or shortened by cutting off a part. Projectile stems and barbs can be at times truncated either by damage or design.

Type A form of projectile or knife for which a description, name and age have been attributed to.

Typology The study of and the chronological arrangement of projectile points and other lithic artifacts into separated types..

Unbeveled An edge which was not steeply flaked into a bevel.

Uniface A term used to describe a point or tool that is worked or finished or knapped on only one side or face. When used to describe a projectile cross-section it means a projectile that has one flat side and one excurvate or rounded side similar to one half of an ellipse.

Unflaked A face which was unaltered by applying flaking.

Unfluted A term referring to projectile or tool which did not have a channel flake removed to form a flute.

Variant A term used in projectile typology to describe a variation of a type.

Vein Quartz A relatively pure type of quartz which is found in viens in areas of igneous rocks.

Wing Same as Barb.

Woodland A cultural period of the Eastern North American Aborigine Indians dating from 3,000 - 1,300 B.P. Usually, the presence of pottery differentiates the Woodland culture from the Archaic culture which preceded it.

Worked A term used in projectile point descriptions which describes an area of an artifact that has been shaped or altered by man, such as the removal of flakes along a blade edge.